Python oops

Python OOPs#

Python OOPs
OOPs Basics
- UML 2.x (Unified Modeling Language)
- ERD (Entity Relation Diagram)
OOPs Features
Implementations of OOPs
Misc
- Ways to call a class member function
- __slots__ : reduce RAM usage
  - Unbound vs Bound Method
    - Unbound Method (Simple Function in Python 3.x)
    - Bound Method
  - Closure

TODO:

stack queue class
design class
custom metaclass creation

OOPs Basics#

UML 2.x (Unified Modeling Language)#

UML can be used for many diagrams other then ERD
- sequence diagram
- state diagram
- more for the funcionality of the application (what user can do, who does it, when he does it, before what step, what table he use to do it) other then the tables description.
- many more (http://agilemodeling.com/essays/umlDiagrams.htm)
read more:
- https://www.omg.org/spec/UML
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language#UML_2

ERD (Entity Relation Diagram)#

Gives image of how the tables should connect
what fields are going to be on each table
the tables connection, if many-to-many, one-to-many.

OOPs Features#

Inheritance
Polymorphism
Encapsulation
Abstraction

Abstraction#

(Implementation hiding) * Core concept in all of computer science. * Without abstraction, we would still be programming in machine code or worse not have computers * Give names to things, so that the name captures the core of what a function or a whole program does. * Used to hide internal details and show only functionalities. * e.g : Any Verb

Ex#

Imagine a graphics library "nicepic" that contains pre-defined functions for: rectangles, squares, triangles, house, village.
1 2
import nicepic draw_house()
Suppose an ATM. You simply insert your card and click some buttons and get the money. You dont know what is happening internally on press of these buttons.

Encapsulation#

(Information hiding) * Is a characteristic to bind data members and functions in single unit. * Is packing of data and functions operating on that data into a single component and restricting the access to some of the objects components. * Is a mechanism which represent the essential features without including implementation details. * e.g : Any Noun

Ex.#

A class is an example of encapsulation as it encapsulates all the data that is member functions,variables etc.
Suppose there is a tree. Tree can have root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. But in a single unit we call it a tree.

Difference between Abstraction and Encapsulation:#

Abstraction:Implementation hiding.
Encapsulation:Information hiding.

Implementation in Class using Access Modifiers#

Python has no privacy model, there are no access modifiers like in C++, C# or Java. There are no truly 'protected' or 'private' attributes.

Public:
Protected members:
- Accessible outside the class and from its subclasses.
- By prefixing the name of your member with a single underscore
- Accessing using: obj._protected_mem
- Just a convention to show, the variable is protected

    class Person:
      def __init__(self): 
        self.name = 'Toran'
        self._lastname = 'Sahu' # protected
        self.__gender = 'Male'


      def PrintName(self):
        return self.name +' ' + self._lastname

    #Outside of class
    p = Person()

    print(p.name) # Out - Toran
    print(p.PrintName()) # Out - Toran Sahu
    # print(p._lastname) # Out - Sahu

Private members:
- Add ____ (double underscore ) in front of the variable and function name
- Accessing private member : Using name mangling : obj._classname__private_mem
1 2
# print(p.__gender) # AttributeError - no attribute '__gender' print(p._Person__gender) # name-mangling : Out - Male

Polymorphism#

In general: The ability to appear in many forms. Specifically: The ability to redefine methods for derived classes.

Static Polymorphism (Method-Overloading)#

Multiple times method with same name does not support in Python (its always takes the last definition)
We can achieve this in python in Single method itself
By passing default parameters or by using *arg, **kwargs

Runtime Polymorphism (Method-Overriding)#

Supports using Inheritance

Inheritance#

keyword: is-a
sign:

Types#

Single
Multilevel
Multiple
Hierchical

Diamond Problem#

resolved in python using order-preference (Method Resolution Order" MRO) in multiplle inheritance
preference order
- Search Path using Depth first search with linear search (old style python 2 classes)
- Search Path with optimization using Depth first search & linear search (new style python3 classes + python2 classes whicj inherits object)

class A:
    def m(self):
        print("m of A called")

class B(A):
    pass

class C(A):
    def m(self):
        print("m of C called")

class D(B,C):
    pass

d = D()
d.m()

Out:

1	`m of C called`

Need of super()#

lets avoid referring to the base class explicitly (i.e. just one class above)
e.g.
- python 3.x: super().__init__()
- python 2.x: super(<ChildClassName>, self.__init__())
2 Basic Uses
- In class hierarchy with single inheritance
  - used to refer to parent classes without naming them explicitly
  - thus making code more maintainable
  - similar in other languages
- Support cooperative multiple inheritance in dynamic execution environment
  - unique to python only
  - implements diamond diagram
    - Magic happens like: m of A called printed once instead twice
  - e.g.
    - as shown below
    - https://stackoverflow.com/questions/5033903/python-super-method-and-calling-alternatives
applications
- useful for accessing inherited methods that have been overridden in a child class
Note:
- uses MRO, in case of multiple inheritance, e.g. of class D
Facts:
- if super().m() is used in a member functions of a sub-class D to call its parent's member function, where class D inherits class B and C
  - then super().m() will instantiate both the parent class B and C and will call method m() in both
    - also, if B and C 's method m() calls its super().m(), where B & C inherits class A
      - then only one time m() of A will be called (the smartest decision)

class A:
    def m(self):
        print("m of A called")

class B(A):
    def m(self):
        print("m of B called")
        # A.m(self) 
        super().m()

class C(A):
    def m(self):
        print("m of C called")
        # A.m(self) 
        super().m()

class D(B,C):
    def m(self):
        print("m of D called")
        # B.m(self) 
        # C.m(self) 
        super().m()

d = D()
d.m()

Out:

m of D called
m of B called
m of C called
m of A called

Other relationships#

src: https://javapapers.com/oops/association-aggregation-composition-abstraction-generalization-realization-dependency/
These relationships are totally implementation based
- how you want to function relationship between two or more classes & their instances
Association
- Aggregation
  - Composition
Generalization
Specialization
Dependency
Note:
- uses-a
  - has-a / uses-a
    - part-of (contains-a, consists-a) / has-a / uses-a
- i.e. a part-of relation can always use words like has-a, uses-a
- so, to find out a perfect relationship, try to approach in a top-to-down manner, to make the relationship more specific

set

Association#

keyword: uses-a
sign: single line with arrow
- unidirectional
  - if class A uses instance of class B
    - arrow will point towards class B
- bidirectional
explanation
- defines the multiplicity (cardianality) between objects
  - one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, many-to-many
- all classes/instances have their own life cycle (in general cases)
- no body have ownership over another (in general cases)
e.g.
- house uses-an internet provider

Weak Association (Aggregation)#

explanation:
- Lets say we have class A & B
- class A has-an (or uses-an) instance class B
  - means class A's any method uses instance of class B as a parameter or returns the instance
  - or if an instance of class A calls a member function (an operation) of an instance of the class B
    - or class A holds instance of class B but instance of class B doesn't get destroyed
      - when instance of class B is created & passed to constructor of class A

Strong Association (Composition)#

explanation:
- Lets say we have class A & B
- class A has-an instance of class B / class B is part-of class A / class A consists of class B
  - means class A holds instance of class B & the instance gets destroyed with destruction of instance of class A
    - i.e. instance of class B is created & gets destroyed inside class A

Aggregation#

aka
- Shared Association
- Weak Association
keyword: has-a (uses-a)
sign: a line with hollow diamond
- "whole" end have a hollow diamond shaped arrow-head
cardianality: one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many
explanation
- Classes Within Classes
- When an object ‘has-a’ another object
  - when one object is an attribute of another
- whole/part relationship (i.e. part of relationship)
- special form of Association
e.g.
- a library has-a student
  - a student can exist without a library
- a Text-editor has-a file opened
  - if text editor is closed, file still exists
conditional e.g.
- if parts of a car are reusable
  - car uses-a/has-a engine
    - if car is scrapped, engine still exists
note:
- It’s always safe to call a relationship an association,but if class A contains objects of class B , and is organizationally superior to class B , it’s a good candidate for aggregation.

Association vs Aggregation#

The association link can replace aggregation link in every situation

Composition (Not-Shared Association)#

keyword: has-a (part-of, consists-of, composed-of)
sign: a line with solid diamond
- unidirectional only
- "whole" end have a solid diamond shaped arrow-head
cardianality: one-to-many, many-to-many
explanation:
- When an object contains the other object (The part may belong to only one whole)
  - if the contained object cannot exist without the existence of container object
  - i.e. The lifetime of the part is the same as the lifetime of the whole.
- special form of Aggregation
  - Stronger/restricted aggregation
- ownership relation
e.g
- a house has-a room
  - if house is destroyed, room also gets
- a class has (contains) students
  - students cannot exist without a class
- a text editor has a buffer
  - if text editor is closed, buffer also gets destroyed
conditional e.g.
- if parts of a car are NOT reusable
  - a car has-a wheel
    - if a car is destroyed, wheel also gets destroyed

Realization#

Realization

Dependency#

Dependency

Implementations of OOPs#

`class`#

in python everything is object of some class
- classes are first-class objects
  - they can be created at runtime, passed as parameters and returned from functions, and assigned to variables
even class is object of something
- this something by default is type class
- we can create a class which is an object of type class
  - read metaclass for deep knowledge
1
cls_a = type('A', (object,), dict({'foo':2, 'bar':3})) # type(class_name_str, base_classes_tuple, body_dict)
- this way we can create a class at runtime

`type`#

type is the class of python classes

class Example:
    pass

e = Example()
e.__class__  # prints: <class __main__.Example>
Example.__class__  # prints: <type 'type'>

so in above code, e is object of class Example and Example is object of class type
in python3 we can use type and class interchangabely
- which was not used in python2
so, whenever we write keyword class while defining a class, an object of class type gets created

`metaclass`#

source:
- https://eli.thegreenplace.net/2011/08/14/python-metaclasses-by-example/
- https://realpython.com/python-metaclasses/#defining-a-class-dynamically
a metaclass is defined as the class of a class
Any class whose instances are themselves classes, is a metaclass

so, type is also a kind of metaclass (which is by default for all python classes and mostly used), but not always

we can define a metaclass for a class

class Example(metaclass=SomeMetaclass):
    # in python2 define metaclass here like
    # __metaclass__ = SomeMetaclass
    pass

Since a metaclass is the class of a class
- it is used to construct classes (just as a class is used to construct objects)
- as we have already seen, class keyword invokes type function to create a class
  - it was because, type is default metaclass
- in reality class keyword do followings
  - when python encounters class definiton, it collects all the attributes in a dict
  - when collection is over, python determines metaclass of the class, lets say SomeMetaclass
    - using SomeClass.__metaclass__
  - then python calls Metaclass(class_name, (base_classes, ), body_dict), where
    - class_name is the name of the class (string )
    - (base_clasees, ) is the tuple of base classes, if it was empty in class definition, then by dafault it is object
    - body_dict is a python dict contaning all the class attribute names
metaclass defines structure/metadata of the class

Methods of metaclass to create & initialize a class are:

`new()`#

used to perform some basic stuff like memory allocation
called on creation of an object of the class

`init()`#

works as contructor in python
used to perform initialization of data
called on creation of an object of the class
it is called after above methods __new__()
so in case of creation of class (suppose A), it is called when we call type()

`call()`#

it is called after above two methods
in case of creation of class, it is called when an object (suppose a = A()) of the class (created from above two steps) is created.

`instance`#

TODO: - confusion in magic method call orders - how a class instance are created - as a class is object of a metaclass

```python
#here class A
A = type('A', (object,), {"a":1})
```

- whenever we call any object/instance of any class, it calls the `__call__` of that class

```python
a = A()

#here A() will call the __call__ of metaclass type
```

- so, a is created by A(), where A() means calling `__call__` of `type` metaclass
- if we provide A() parameters, like A(1,2), then `__call__(self, *args, **kwargs)__` handles those parameters
- then inside metaclass's `__call__` , `__init__` of the class is called by passing all the parameters passed to `__call__`

so, whenever we create an object/instance of a class, following things happens:
- metaclass's __new__ is called; creates memory (object) for class
- metaclass's __init__ is called; intializes class with its name and body
- when class, lets say Example is called Example(), then metaclass's __call__ is called
- to initialize the object of Example class, Example.__init__ is called

Old vs New Style#

in python realm, there are two varities of classes
- Old-Style
  - object of a class is always a
  - in python 2.x , classes are old-style by deafult due to compatibility issues
  - in python 2.x, New-Style classes are created by inheriting other New-style classes or top-level type object
    - here object is a keyword which is instance of class type, and we know that type is a metaclass
      - and metaclass is a class of class
      - hence instance of a metaclass is always a class
      - hence object keyword is a kind of class, which is created already in python just to implement a New-Style class
  - syntax are like
  1 2
  class A(object): pass
- New-Style
  - object of a class is always a
  - in python 3.x has new-style classes only
    - hence no need to inherit object in class
    1 2
    class Example : pass
  - introduced in python2.2 to unify the concepts of class and type
    - in new-style type(x) and x.__class__ are always same
    - a new-style class is simply a user-defined type
  - more differences at https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4015417/python-class-inherits-object
    - TODO:

`object` keyword#

object is a keyword which is instance of class type, and we know that type is a metaclass
- and metaclass is a class of class
- hence instance of a metaclass is always a class
- hence object keyword is a kind of class, which is created already in python just to implement a New-Style class

MRO#

(Method Resolution Order) - source: - https://makina-corpus.com/blog/metier/2014/python-tutorial-understanding-python-mro-class-search-path - class.__mro__ is only available in New-Style class

Script: 1

class A:
    def m(self):
        print("m of A called")

class B(A):
    def m(self):
        print("m of B called")


class C(A):
    #def m(self):
    #   print("m of C called")
     pass

class D(B,C):
    #def m(self):
    #    print("m of D called")
    pass

d = D()
d.m()        

Script: 2

class A1():
#      def who_am_i(self):
#          print("I am a A1")
    pass

class A2():
     def who_am_i(self):
         print("I am a A2")


class B(A1, A2):
#     def who_am_i(self):
#         print("I am a B")
    pass

class C(A2):
    def who_am_i(self):
        print("I am a C")

class D(B,C):
#     def who_am_i(self):
#         print("I am a D")
    pass

d1 = D()
d1.who_am_i()

DLR (Old) MRO Algorithm (Based on Old-Style Class)#

depth first left to right
uses depth-first search followed by linear search (left to right)
- we call this order search path
in script 1
- Looking in D
- If not found, looking in B
- If not found, looking un B first parent A
- If not found, going back in B others parents (none)
- If not found, looking in D others parents : C
in script 2
- search path will be D, B, A1, A2, C, A2

C3 New MRO Algorithm (Based on New-Style Class)#

default in python3
works in python2 with classes who inherits object
Algo
- defines search path same as old algorithm
- then simplifies the search path like this
  - iterate through the original search path
  - put pointer on current class
  - check if any classes after the pointer are child of current class (in other words, check if any classes after the pointer inherits the current class)
    - if yes, then remove the current class from search path
    - if no, then move the pointer to next class in the right
    - do the same till end of search path list
in script 1
- original search path will be D, B, A, C, A
- then simplified search path will be D, B, C, A
in script 2
- search path will be D, B, A1, A2, C, A2
- then simplified search path should be D, B, A1, C, A2

Impossible Method Resolution#

Script:

class X():
    def who_am_i(self):
        print("I am a X")

class Y():
    def who_am_i(self):
        print("I am a Y")

class A(X, Y):
    def who_am_i(self):
        print("I am a A")

class B(Y, X):
     def who_am_i(self):
         print("I am a B")

class F (A, B):
    def who_am_i(self):
        print("I am a F")

In Old MRO algo, search path is F, A, X, Y, B, Y, X
In New MRO algo, simplified search path is F, A, B, Y, X but New MRO algo fails to give __mro__
- and throws following exception
1
TypeError: Cannot create a consistent method resolution

Abstract Base Class (Abstract Class)#

Classes that contains one or more abstract methods as well as concrete methods. A normal class cannot have abstract methods.
Cannot instantiate an abstract class that has abstract methods
Subclass which implements all the abstract method can be instantiated

Python Implementation:

    # Python 3.4+
    from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
    class Abstract(ABC):
        @abstractmethod
        def foo(self):
            pass

    # Python 3.0+
    from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
    class Abstract(metaclass=ABCMeta):
        @abstractmethod
        def foo(self):
            pass

    # Python 2
    from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
    class Abstract:
        __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

        @abstractmethod
        def foo(self):
            pass    

Bottom Line#

in python3:
- base class of classes are: object
- metaclass of classes are: type
- type of classes are: type
- classes are instance of class: type

Class Decorators#

e.g. https://github.com/toransahu/py-misc/blob/master/class_based_class_decorator_with_pre_post.py TODO:

Class Decorators versus metaclass#

source:
- https://jfine-python-classes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/decorators-versus-metaclass.html
nothing different other than implementation style

Interface#

Doesn't need in Python (bcoz, it was need in other lang. to full-fill the Multiple inheritance)

Concept: * A class with all the methods abstract * Contains Methods signature * Do not contain definition/method body * Constant variables (which must be Static + Final in other langs.) - in python there is no final or const keyword * Cannot instantiated * Behaviour/methods which must be implemented by classes * Class which implement interface should implement all the methods OR be an abstract class

Python Implementation:

    class Engine():
        """ Engine Interface"""

        def ignition(self):
            raise NotImplementedError( "Ingnition should have implemented." )
        def fuel(self):
            raise NotImplementedError( "Fuel should have implemented." )

Variables#

Instance Variable#

variable defined inside class methods
different for different objects
every object have its own copy

Static or Class Variable#

defined in class level
shared by all the objects
can be accessed by Class name as well as objects
with the same name, there can be one class level variable and one instance level variable, see in e.g.
- in this case, Class.variable will definitely access the static var
- but instance.variable will access the instance variable
accessing inside methods
- it can be accessed using Class.var & self.var
- if there is instance variable with the same name then self.var will access the instance variable

class A:
    variable = 'Static/class Variable'  # static/class variable
    var = 'Static/class Var'  # static/class variable

    def __init__(self):
        self.variable = 'Instance Variable'

    def foo(self):
        print(A.variable, self.variable, self.var)


print(A.variable)

a = A()
a.foo()

Out:

Static/class Variable
Instance Variable
Static/class Var
Static/class Variable Instance Variable

Instance vs Class/Static attribute lookup order#

instance/object > static/class > base class

which is:

a.dict['x'] > type(a).dict['x'] > type(a)

Methods#

Abstract Method#

a method without definition (only declared)
only signature
In python: a method decorated with @abstractmethod

Method vs Function#

Method works exactly same as a simple function.
But a method's first argument always receives the instance object:

Code:

def outside_foo():
    pass

def outside_foo(self,):
    pass

Static Method#

What#

an organization/stylistic feature
functionality-wise same as normal module level functions
- except, module level func can access an instance and hence instance variables, but static method cannot
designed to work on class attributes
can be called using class as well as instance
A static method has no self argument
Never receive an automatic self argument, whether called through a class or an instance.
can access/modify class or static variables using class_name.var

How#

two way of declaration
- using decorator @staticmethod
- [fn_name] = staticmethod([fn_name])

Why#

to restrict access of instance attributes (unlike a normal method have access)
to fix the access of static variable of a that particular class only
- because it is hardcoded like A.static_variable
src: http://radek.io/2011/07/21/static-variables-and-methods-in-python/

Code#

class A:
    static_variable = 'Static/class Variable of class A'  # static/class variable

    def __init__(self):
        self.instance_variable = 'Instance Variable'

    @staticmethod
    def static_method():
        print('Inside static_method()', A.static_variable)  # works
        # print('Inside static_method()', A.instance_variable)  # error, static method can't access instance attributes

    # static method
    def way2():
        pass

    # making way2() a static method
    way2 = staticmethod(way2)


class B(A):
    static_variable = 'Static/class Variable of class B'  # static/class variable


# but a module level func can access an instance attribute
def module_level_func():
    a1 = A()
    print(a1.instance_variable)


a2 = A()

a2.static_method()
A.static_method()
B.static_method()  # still accessing static_variable from class A

Out:

Inside static_method() Static/class Variable of class A
Inside static_method() Static/class Variable of class A
Inside static_method() Static/class Variable of class A

Class Method#

What#

an organization/stylistic feature
not different from static method, only signature diff
it receives one mandatory arguement: a class name it was called from
apart from this first parameter, there is no any functionality diff between class & static method
designed to work on class attributes
can be called using class as well as instance
can access/modify class or static variables using cls.var where cls is first parameter provided to a classmethod

How#

implemented using
- decorator @classmethod
- assigning to function i.e., method_name = classmethod(method_name)

Why#

to restrict access of instance attributes (unlike a normal method have access)
to make code more maintanable than static methods

Code#

class A:
    static_variable = 'Static/class Variable of class A'  # static/class variable

    def __init__(self):
        self.instance_variable = 'Instance Variable'

    @classmethod
    def class_method(cls):
        print('Inside class_method()', cls.static_variable)  # works
        # print('Inside class_method()', cls.instance_variable)  # error, class method can't access instance attributes

    # static method
    def way2(cls):
        pass

    # making way2() a static method
    way2 = classmethod(way2)


class B(A):
    static_variable = 'Static/class Variable of class B'  # static/class variable


# but a module level func can access an instance attribute
def module_level_func():
    a1 = A()
    print(a1.instance_variable)


a2 = A()

a2.class_method()
A.class_method()
B.class_method()  # now it will access static variable of class B

Out:

Inside class_method() Static/class Variable of class A
Inside class_method() Static/class Variable of class A
Inside class_method() Static/class Variable of class B

Magic Method#

TODO:

Source:
- https://www.python-course.eu/python3_magic_methods.php
- https://rszalski.github.io/magicmethods/
Methods with dunders
(+) : __add()__
(-) : __sub()__
Can be used for operator overloading, as

class Calc(int):
    def __init__(self, x):
        self.x = x
    def __add__(self, other):
        return self.x + other.x + 1

a = Calc(1)    
b = Calc(1)
a + b

Out:

Class Internal Methods#

TODO:

Source:
- http://www.diveintopython3.net/special-method-names.html
- https://rszalski.github.io/magicmethods/

Some famous magic methods / internal methods of a class

`new`#

allocates memory to class instance

`init`#

initializes instance with some values

`call`#

called upon calling an instance (e.g. a = A(); a())

`get`#

get descriptor method

`set`#

set descriptor method

`del`#

del descriptor method

`slots`#

allows us to explicitly declare data members (like properties) and deny the creation of __dict__ & __weakref__ (unless explicitly declared in __slots__)

`getattribute`#

called when accessing any attribute via class instance

c = C()
c.name

`getattr`#

same as __getattribute__ but gets called only when attribiute is not found via __getattribute__

`getattr` vs `getattribute`#

Source:
- http://www.diveintopython3.net/special-method-names.html

`enter`#

`exit`#

`repr`#

`str`#

`format`#

`iter`#

`next`#

`reversed`#

`dir`#

`setattr`#

`delattr`#

`len`#

`contains`#

`getitem`#

Properties#

Source:
- https://www.journaldev.com/14893/python-property-decorator
- https://docs.python.org/3/howto/descriptor.html#properties
- https://medium.com/shecodeafrica/managing-class-attributes-in-python-c42d501c5ee0

Why

to manage access to an attribute to outer world
- can only allow get
- can only allow set
- can only allow del
- can perform something more while doing above operations

to solve problem like this (dependent attribute value issue)

e.g.

class Example:
    def __init__(self,ap, bp):
        self._a = ap
        self._b = bp
        self.c = self._a + self._b

    def get_c(self):
        return self.c

e = Example(1,2)        
print(e._a)
print(e._b)
print(e.c)
print(e.get_c())
e._a = 5
print(e._a)
print(e.c)
print(e.get_c())

solution e.g.

        class Example:
            def __init__(self,ap, bp):
                self._a = ap
                self._b = bp

            @property
            def c(self):
                return self._a + self._b


        e = Example(1,2)        
        print(e._a)
        print(e._b)
        print(e.c)
        e._a = 5
        print(e._a)
        print(e.c)

What
- property are built -in python decorators
- provides 3 methods
  - get
  - set
  - del
How
- property in python are implemented using Descriptors
uses : pattern 1

class Example:
    def __init__(self,ap):
        self._a = ap


    @property
    def a(self):
        return self._a

    @a.setter
    def a(self, value):
        self._a = value

    @a.deleter
    def a(self):
        del self._a


e = Example(1)        
print(e.a)
e.a = 5
print(e.a)
del(e.a)
print(e.a)  #AttributeError: 'Example' object has no attribute '_a'

uses : pattern 2

class Example:
    def __init__(self,ap):
        self._a = ap

    def get_a(self):
        return self._a

    def set_a(self, value):
        self._a = value

    def del_a(self):
        del self._a


    # will give only get access
    a = property(fget=get_a)

    # will give only set access
    a = property(fset=set_a)

    # will give only del access
    a = property(fdel=del_a)

    #will give all access of var `a`
    a = property(get_a, set_a, del_a)  #property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

e = Example(1)        
print(e.a)
e.a = 5
print(e.a)
del(e.a)
print(e.a) # AttributeError: 'Example' object has no attribute '_a'

Descriptors#

TODO:

Source:
- https://docs.python.org/3/howto/descriptor.html
descriptor is an object attribute with “binding behavior”, one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor protocol
Those methods are get(), set(), and delete()
Basic
- default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete
- For instance, a.x has a lookup chain starting with a.dict['x'], then type(a).dict['x'], and continuing through the base classes of type(a) excluding metaclasses
- If there is descriptor x defined, then descriptor will override the lookup order and will become number one
Use Cases
- They are the mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and super()
- They are used throughout Python itself to implement the new style classes introduced in version 2.2

Protocol#

descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None) --> value

descr.__set__(self, obj, value) --> None

descr.__delete__(self, obj) --> None

define any of the above in any class, and object will considered as descriptor
- and descriptor will override the default attribute lookup behavior (in class dictionary lookup)
if object defines both __get__ and __set__; then its data descriptor
- if instance have attribute (means entry in instance dict) with same name as descriptor, then here lookup order will become data descriptor > instance dict
if object defines only __get__; then its non-data descriptor
- in this case if instance have attribute with same name as descriptor, then here lookup order will become instance dict > data descriptor

Simple Implemetation#

TODO - Issue with __del__; not explained in python doc

class ExampleDescriptor:
    def __init__(self, val):
        self.val = val

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        print("getting")
        return self.val

    def __set__(self, obj, val):
        print("setting")
        self.val = val


class Example:
    name = ExampleDescriptor("toran")


if __name__ == "__main__":
    e = Example()
    print(e.name)
    e.name = "sahu"
    print(e.name) 

Property implementation#

class Property(object):
    "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

    def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
        self.fget = fget
        self.fset = fset
        self.fdel = fdel
        if doc is None and fget is not None:
            doc = fget.__doc__
        self.__doc__ = doc

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        if obj is None:
            return self
        if self.fget is None:
            raise AttributeError("unreadable attribute")
        return self.fget(obj)

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        if self.fset is None:
            raise AttributeError("can't set attribute")
        self.fset(obj, value)

    def __delete__(self, obj):
        if self.fdel is None:
            raise AttributeError("can't delete attribute")
        self.fdel(obj)

    def getter(self, fget):
        return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

    def setter(self, fset):
        return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

    def deleter(self, fdel):
        return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)

Misc#

Ways to call a class member function#

1 2
a = A() a.foo(args)
1 2
a = A() A.foo(a,args)

`slots` : reduce RAM usage#

source http://book.pythontips.com/en/latest/__slots__magic.html

Unbound vs Bound Method#

Unbound Method (Simple Function in Python 3.x)#

Unbound means not bound to any instance
i.e. callable using class name

Bound Method#

Bound methods are bound to some instance
Need an instance to call it.

Note: In Python 3.x, the notion of Unbound Method has been dropped and we treat it as Simple Function.

Closure#

A combination of code and scope.
It's about nested function and the scope of the function

Code:

def startAt(start):
    def incrementBy(inc):
        return start + inc
    return incrementBy

f = startAt(10)
g = startAt(100)
print(f(1), g(2))

# Using lamba
def startAt(start):
    return lambda inc : start + inc

f = startAt(10)
g = startAt(100)
print(f(1), g(2))

Out:

11 102
11 102

Python oops

Python OOPs#

OOPs Basics#

UML 2.x (Unified Modeling Language)#

ERD (Entity Relation Diagram)#

OOPs Features#

Abstraction#

Ex#

Encapsulation#

Ex.#

Difference between Abstraction and Encapsulation:#

Implementation in Class using Access Modifiers#

Polymorphism#

Static Polymorphism (Method-Overloading)#

Runtime Polymorphism (Method-Overriding)#

Inheritance#

Types#

Diamond Problem#

Need of super()#

Other relationships#

Association#

Weak Association (Aggregation)#

Strong Association (Composition)#

Aggregation#

Association vs Aggregation#

Composition (Not-Shared Association)#

Realization#

Dependency#

Implementations of OOPs#

class#

type#

metaclass#

__new__()#

__init__()#

__call__()#

instance#

Old vs New Style#

object keyword#

MRO#

DLR (Old) MRO Algorithm (Based on Old-Style Class)#

C3 New MRO Algorithm (Based on New-Style Class)#

Impossible Method Resolution#

Abstract Base Class (Abstract Class)#

Bottom Line#

Class Decorators#

Class Decorators versus metaclass#

Interface#

Variables#

Instance Variable#

Static or Class Variable#

Instance vs Class/Static attribute lookup order#

Methods#

Abstract Method#

Method vs Function#

Static Method#

What#

How#

Why#

Code#

Class Method#

What#

How#

Why#

Code#

Magic Method#

Class Internal Methods#

__new__#

__init__#

__call__#

__get__#

__set__#

__del__#

__slots__#

__getattribute__#

__getattr__#

__getattr__ vs __getattribute__#

__enter__#

__exit__#

__repr__#

__str__#

`class`#

`type`#

`metaclass`#

`new()`#

`init()`#

`call()`#

`instance`#

`object` keyword#

`new`#

`init`#

`call`#

`get`#

`set`#

`del`#

`slots`#

`getattribute`#

`getattr`#

`getattr` vs `getattribute`#

`enter`#

`exit`#

`repr`#

`str`#

`format`#

`iter`#

`next`#

`reversed`#

`dir`#

`setattr`#

`delattr`#

`len`#

`contains`#

`getitem`#

`slots` : reduce RAM usage#